Module 6: FORMULATION OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this session you should be able to:
State the reasons for writing objectives for your research project.
Define and describe the difference between general and specific objectives.
Define the characteristics of research objectives.
Prepare research objectives in an appropriate format for the project you are developing.
Develop further research questions, and research hypotheses, if appropriate for your study.
STEPS IN DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROJECT
Objectives
Hypotheses
Title of the study
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The OBJECTIVES of a research project summarise what is to be achieved by the study.
Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem. For example, if the problem identified is low utilisation of child welfare clinics, the general objective of the study could be to identify the reasons for this low utilisation, in order to find solutions.
The general objective of a study states what researchers expect to achieve by the study in general terms.
It is possible (and advisable) to break down a general objective into smaller, logically connected parts. These are normally referred to as specific objectives.
Specific objectives should systematically address the various aspects of the problem as defined under ‘Statement of the Problem’ and the key factors that are assumed to influence or cause the problem. They should specify what you will do in your study, where and for what purpose.
A study into the cost and quality of home-based care for HIV/AIDS patients and their communities in Zimbabwe, developed at an HSR workshop, for example, had as its general objective: To explore to what extent community home-based care (CHBC) projects in Zimbabwe provide adequate, affordable and sustainable care of good quality to people with HIV/AIDS, and to identify ways in which these services can be improved. It was split up in the following specific objectives: 1. To identify the full range of economic, psychosocial, health/nursing care and other needs of patients and their families affected by AIDS. 2. To determine the extent to which formal and informal support systems address these needs from the viewpoint of service providers as well as patients. 3. To determine the economic costs of CHBC to the patient and family as well as to the formal CHBC programmes themselves. 4. To relate the calculated costs to the quality of care provided to the patient by the family and to the family/patient by the CHBC programme. 5. To determine how improved CHBC and informal support networks can contribute to the needs of persons with AIDS and other chronically and terminally ill patients. 6. To use the findings to make recommendations on the improvement of CHBC to home care providers, donors and other concerned organisations, including government.
The first specific objective usually focuses on quantifying or specifying the problem. This is necessary in many studies, especially when a problem has been defined (but not quantified) for which subsequently the major causes have to be identified. Often use can be made of available statistics or of the health information system. In the study on the high defaulter rate of TB patients, this rate should first be established, using the records, and only then would the contributing factors to defaulting be analysed. In the example given, the needs of AIDS patients and their relatives for care and support have been defined in the first objective. The objectives which follow concentrate on adequacy, cost and quality of care provided whereas the last two objectives specify possible improvements with respect to CHBC, and to whom the results and recommendations of the study will be fed back.
Note: It may be helpful to use the diagram as a point of departure and check whether the problem and all major, directly contributing factors (analytic study) or major components (descriptive or evaluation study) have been covered by the objectives. An objective indicating how the results will be used should be included in every operational study, either as part of the general objective or as a specific objective. Why should research objectives be developed? The formulation of objectives will help you to: Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials); Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for understanding and solving the problem you have identified; and Organise the study in clearly defined parts or phases. Properly formulated, specific objectives will facilitate the development of your research methodology and will help to orient the collection, analysis, interpretation and utilisation of data.
How should you state your objectives? Take care that the objectives of your study: Cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a coherent way and in a logical sequence; Are clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying exactly what you are going to do, where, and for what purpose; Are realistic considering local conditions; and Use action verbs that are specific enough to be evaluated. Examples of action verbs are: to determine, to compare, to verify, to calculate, to describe, and to establish. Avoid the use of vague non-action verbs such as: to appreciate, to understand, or to study. Keep in mind that when the project is evaluated, the results will be compared to the objectives. If the objectives have not been spelled out clearly, the project cannot be evaluated.
Using the previous example on cost and quality of CHBC, we may develop more specific research questions for the different objectives, such as: Do rural and urban CHBC projects differ with respect to the adequacy, quality, affordability and sustainability of HBC provided? How satisfied are AIDS patients, relatives and service providers with the care provided? Are there differences in perceptions between those groups? Is the stigma attached to being HIV+ the same strong for women as for men? Or are there gender differences in stigma? What impact does the care provided to AIDS patients have on the economy of the homestead? Is there competition with other basic needs (e.g. schooling of children, purchases of food)?
. HYPOTHESES Based on your experience with the study problem, it might be possible to develop explanations for the problem, which can then be tested. If so, you can formulate hypotheses in addition to the study objectives. A HYPOTHESIS is a prediction of a relationship between one or more factors and the problem under study that can be tested. In our example concerning the cost and quality of HBC in Zimbabwe it would have been possible to formulate and test the following hypotheses: The role of first-line relatives in the provision of care to AIDS patients is more substantial in rural than in urban areas. The silence and stigma surrounding AIDS makes the formation of self-help groups of AIDS patients and their relatives next to impossible, which in turn maintains the high level of stigma on HIV/AIDS.
Note: Policy makers and field staff usually feel the need for research because they do NOT have enough insight into the causes of a certain problem. Therefore, most HSR proposals present the specific objectives in the form of open statements (as given in the examples earlier) instead of focusing the study on a limited number of hypotheses.
TITLE OF THE STUDY Now you can finalise the title of your study. The title should be in line with your general objective. Make sure that it is specific enough to tell the reader what your study is about and where it will be calculated. NOT: ‘A study on community home-based care’ BUT: ‘A study on cost and quality of community home-based care for HIV/AIDS patients and their communities in Zimbabwe’ You might also consider fancier titles: ‘Do We Care? A study on cost and quality of CHBC for HIV/AIDS patients in Zimbabwe’* Another example could be: ‘WORKSHOPS: Blessings or Burdens? A study of the workshops held in 1999 in Province Y - Their utility and consequences for daily working activities of health staff’ *The study with this title, used as an example in the present module, was carried out by G Woelk, H Jackson, R Kerkhoven, K Hansen, N Manjonjori, P Maramba, J Mutambirwa, E Ndimande and E Vera. It was published in December 1997 by the Department of Community Medicine, University of Zimbabwe, the Southern African AIDS Information Dissemination Service (SAFAIDS) and the National AIDS Control Programme, Ministry of Health, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Prepare a general objective and specific objectives for the research proposal you are developing. After formulating your objectives ask yourself the following questions: Do the objectives deal with all aspects of the research problem in a logical and coherent way? Are the objectives clearly phrased? Are the objectives defined in operational terms that can be measured? Are they realistic? Do they indicate where the study will be conducted? Do they include the development of recommendations for how the research results will be used to solve the problem?
Adjustments Facilitators in past courses have found it useful to provide a second group work session in which participants can finalise their objectives, analysis diagram and title of the research project, after they have received feedback during the plenary session.
Variables in research When doing social research, variables are both important and tricky. Here's a few words about them.
Definitions A variable is something that can change, such as 'gender' and are typically the focus of a study. Attributes are sub-values of a variable, such as 'male' and 'female'. An exhaustive list contains all possible answers, for example gender could also include 'male transgender' and 'female transgender' (and both can be pre- or post-operative). Mutually exclusive attributes are those that cannot occur at the same time. Thus in a survey a person may be requested to select one answer from a list of alternatives (as opposed to selecting as many that might apply). Quantitative data is numeric. This is useful for mathematical and statistical analysis that leads to a predictive formula. Qualitative data is based on human judgement. You can turn qualitative data into quantitative data, for example by counting the proportion of people who hold a particular qualitative viewpoint. Units are the ways that variables are classified. These include: individuals, groups, social interactions and objects.
Types Descriptive variables are those that which will be reported on, without relating them to anything in particular. Categorical variables result from a selection from categories, such as 'agree' and 'disagree'. Nominal and ordinal variables are categorical. Numeric variables give a number, such as age. Discrete variables are numeric variables that come from a limited set of numbers. They may result from , answering questions such as 'how many', 'how often', etc. Continuous variables are numeric variables that can take any value, such as weight.
Independence An independent variable is one is manipulated by the researcher. It is like the knob on a dial that the researcher turns. In graphs, it is put on the X-axis. A dependent variable is one which changes as a result of the independent variable being changed, and is put on the Y-axis in graphs. The holy grail for researchers is to be able to determine the relationship between the independent and dependent variables, such that if the independent variable is changed, then the researcher will be able to accurately predict how the dependent variable will change. Extraneous variables are additional variables which could provide alternative explanations or cast doubt on conclusions. Variables may have the following characteristics: Period: When it starts and stops. Pattern: Daily, weekly, ad-hoc, etc. Detail: Overview through to 'in depth'. Latency: Time between measuring dependent and independent variable (some things take time to take effect).
Control Note that in an experiment there may be many additional variables beyond the manipulated independent variable and the measured dependent variables. It is critical in experiments that these variables do not vary and hence bias or otherwise distort the results. There is a struggle between control vs. authenticity in managing this.
Correlation With perfect correlation, the X-Y graph of points (as a scatter diagram) will give a straight line. Whilst this may happen in physics, it seldom happens in social research and a probabilistic relationship is the best that can be determined. Correlation can be positive (increasing X increases Y), negative (increasing X decreases Y) or non-linear (increasing X makes Y increase or decrease, depending on the value of X). Correlation can also be partial, that is across only a range of values X. As all possible values of X can seldom be tested, most correlations found are at best partial.
Cause When correlation is determined, a further question is whether varying the independent variable caused the independent variable to change. This adds complexity and debate to the situation. Sometimes a third variable is the cause, such as when a correlation between ice-cream sales and drowning is actually due to the fact that both are caused by warm weather.
Friday, February 18, 2011
Wednesday, February 9, 2011
case study front end and back end
Front-end and back-end are terms used to characterize program interfaces and services relative to the initial user of these interfaces and services. (The "user" may be a human being or a program.) A "front-end" application is one that application users interact with directly. A "back-end" application or program serves indirectly in support of the front-end services, usually by being closer to the required resource or having the capability to communicate with the required resource.
Front end and back end are generalized terms that refer to the initial and the end stages of a process. The front end is responsible for collecting input in various forms from the user and processing it to conform to a specification the back end can use. The front end is an interface between the user and the back end.
Front-end and back-end are terms used to characterize program interfaces and services relative to the initial user of these interfaces and services. (The "user" may be a human being or a program.) A "front-end" application is one that application users interact with directly. A "back-end" application or program serves indirectly in support of the front-end services, usually by being closer to the required resource or having the capability to communicate with the required resource.
Example - the Telephony Application Program Interface ( TAPI ) is sometimes referred to as a front-end interface for telephone services. A program's TAPI requests are mapped by Microsoft's TAPI Dynamic Link Library programs (an intermediate set of programs) to a "back-end" program or driver that makes the more detailed series of requests to the telephone hardware in the computer
In software architecture there are many layers between the hardware and end user. Each can be spoken of as having a front end and a back end. The front is an abstraction, simplifying the underlying component by providing a user-friendly interface.
In software design, the model-view-controller for example, provides front and back ends for the database, the user, and the data processing components. The separation of software systems into front and back ends simplifies development and separates maintenance.
For major computer subsystems, a graphical file manager is a front end to the computer's file system, and a shell interfaces the operating system — the front end faces the user and the back end launches the programs of the operating system in response.
In network computing front end can refer to any hardware that optimizes or protects network traffic. It is called application front-end hardware because it is placed on the network's outward-facing front end or boundary. Network traffic passes through the front-end hardware before entering the network.
In compilers, the front end translates a computer programming source code into an intermediate representation, and the back end works with the intermediate representation to produce code in a computer output language. The back end usually optimizes to produce code that runs faster. The front-end–back-end distinction can separate the parser section that deals with source code and the back end that generates code and optimizes; some designs (such as GCC) offer choices between multiple front ends (parsing different source languages) or back ends (generating code for different target processors).
In speech synthesis, the front end refers to the part of the synthesis system that converts the input text into a symbolic phonetic representation, and the back end converts the symbolic phonetic representation into actual sounds.
In the context of WWW applications, a mediator is a service that functions simultaneously as a server on its front end and as a client on its back end.
A front end can also be a piece of software that is designed to make using a computer in the car easy and enjoyable. These software offerings will hide the Windows desktop and are designed with the driver in mind. Items like big buttons, gestures, intuitive user interfaces, and customizable skins make Car Computing even more fun!
Front end and back end are generalized terms that refer to the initial and the end stages of a process. The front end is responsible for collecting input in various forms from the user and processing it to conform to a specification the back end can use. The front end is an interface between the user and the back end.
Front-end and back-end are terms used to characterize program interfaces and services relative to the initial user of these interfaces and services. (The "user" may be a human being or a program.) A "front-end" application is one that application users interact with directly. A "back-end" application or program serves indirectly in support of the front-end services, usually by being closer to the required resource or having the capability to communicate with the required resource.
Example - the Telephony Application Program Interface ( TAPI ) is sometimes referred to as a front-end interface for telephone services. A program's TAPI requests are mapped by Microsoft's TAPI Dynamic Link Library programs (an intermediate set of programs) to a "back-end" program or driver that makes the more detailed series of requests to the telephone hardware in the computer
In software architecture there are many layers between the hardware and end user. Each can be spoken of as having a front end and a back end. The front is an abstraction, simplifying the underlying component by providing a user-friendly interface.
In software design, the model-view-controller for example, provides front and back ends for the database, the user, and the data processing components. The separation of software systems into front and back ends simplifies development and separates maintenance.
For major computer subsystems, a graphical file manager is a front end to the computer's file system, and a shell interfaces the operating system — the front end faces the user and the back end launches the programs of the operating system in response.
In network computing front end can refer to any hardware that optimizes or protects network traffic. It is called application front-end hardware because it is placed on the network's outward-facing front end or boundary. Network traffic passes through the front-end hardware before entering the network.
In compilers, the front end translates a computer programming source code into an intermediate representation, and the back end works with the intermediate representation to produce code in a computer output language. The back end usually optimizes to produce code that runs faster. The front-end–back-end distinction can separate the parser section that deals with source code and the back end that generates code and optimizes; some designs (such as GCC) offer choices between multiple front ends (parsing different source languages) or back ends (generating code for different target processors).
In speech synthesis, the front end refers to the part of the synthesis system that converts the input text into a symbolic phonetic representation, and the back end converts the symbolic phonetic representation into actual sounds.
In the context of WWW applications, a mediator is a service that functions simultaneously as a server on its front end and as a client on its back end.
A front end can also be a piece of software that is designed to make using a computer in the car easy and enjoyable. These software offerings will hide the Windows desktop and are designed with the driver in mind. Items like big buttons, gestures, intuitive user interfaces, and customizable skins make Car Computing even more fun!
Monday, February 7, 2011
Impacts of Internet Technology and Electronic Commerce: Its Contribution to Information Systems Development
Define electronic commerce (EC) and describe its various categories
Describe and discuss the content and framework of EC
Describe the major types of EC transactions
Describe some EC business models
Discuss the benefits of EC to organizations, consumers, and society
Describe the limitations of EC
Describe the role of the digital revolution in EC and the economic impact of EC
Discuss the contribution of EC in helping organizations respond to environmental pressures
Discuss some major managerial issues regarding EC
E-Commerce: A Revolution in the Way We Do Business
From a business perspective, the Internet means OPPORTUNITY.
provides companies and individuals with avenues to obtain information
can enhance communications among employees, customers and vendors
increase human resource productivity
eliminates the barriers of time and distance
transactions can occur instantaneously and globally
Electronic commerce (e-commerce)
Sometimes called e-business.
Is financial business transaction that occurs over an electronic network.
Two popular types of e-commerce:
shopping
trading stocks
At first, e-commerce transactions were conducted primarily through desktop computers.
Today many handheld computers and devices can access the Web wirelessly.
m-commerce (mobile commerce)
e-commerce that takes place using mobile devices.
E-COMMERCE BUSINESS MODELS
Business-to-Consumer (B2C)
Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C)
Business-to-Business (B2B)
Business-to-Employee (B2E)
1. Business-to-Consumer (B2C)
Consists of the sale of products or services from a business to the general public or end-user.
Seller : business
Buyer : consumer (public)
Products for sale can be physical objects or intangible items.
… by eliminating the middleman.
Disintermediation - businesses sell products directly to consumer without using traditional retail channels.
This enables some B2C companies to sell products at a lower cost and with faster service.
Consumers also derive benefits from the B2C business model
They have access to a variety of products and services without the constraints of time and distance.
Consumers easily can compare shops to find the best buy.
B2C web sites provide consumer services such as access to product reviews, chat rooms, and other product-related information.
B2C business target advertisements, determine needs and personalize offerings to a customer’s profile.
2. Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C)
Consists of individuals using the Internet to sell products and services directly to other individuals.
Online auction
the most popular vehicle for C2C e-commerce.
one consumer auctions goods to other consumers. If interested, you bid on an item. The highest bidder at the end of the bidding period purchases the item.
3. Business-to-Business (B2B)
Consists of the sale and exchange of products and service between businesses.
4 basic types of B2B
Vendor
Service
Broker
Infomediary
4 basic types of B2B
Vendor B2B site (e-procurement site)
Is a product supplier that allows purchasing agents to use a network to shop, submit request for quotes (RFQs), and purchase items.
Service B2B site
Uses a network to provide one or more services to business such as financing, warehousing, or shipping.
Brokering B2B site
Acts as a middleman by negotiating the contract of a purchase and a sale.
Info-mediary B2B site (short for information intermediary)
Provides specialized information about suppliers and other businesses.
Describe and discuss the content and framework of EC
Describe the major types of EC transactions
Describe some EC business models
Discuss the benefits of EC to organizations, consumers, and society
Describe the limitations of EC
Describe the role of the digital revolution in EC and the economic impact of EC
Discuss the contribution of EC in helping organizations respond to environmental pressures
Discuss some major managerial issues regarding EC
E-Commerce: A Revolution in the Way We Do Business
From a business perspective, the Internet means OPPORTUNITY.
provides companies and individuals with avenues to obtain information
can enhance communications among employees, customers and vendors
increase human resource productivity
eliminates the barriers of time and distance
transactions can occur instantaneously and globally
Electronic commerce (e-commerce)
Sometimes called e-business.
Is financial business transaction that occurs over an electronic network.
Two popular types of e-commerce:
shopping
trading stocks
At first, e-commerce transactions were conducted primarily through desktop computers.
Today many handheld computers and devices can access the Web wirelessly.
m-commerce (mobile commerce)
e-commerce that takes place using mobile devices.
E-COMMERCE BUSINESS MODELS
Business-to-Consumer (B2C)
Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C)
Business-to-Business (B2B)
Business-to-Employee (B2E)
1. Business-to-Consumer (B2C)
Consists of the sale of products or services from a business to the general public or end-user.
Seller : business
Buyer : consumer (public)
Products for sale can be physical objects or intangible items.
… by eliminating the middleman.
Disintermediation - businesses sell products directly to consumer without using traditional retail channels.
This enables some B2C companies to sell products at a lower cost and with faster service.
Consumers also derive benefits from the B2C business model
They have access to a variety of products and services without the constraints of time and distance.
Consumers easily can compare shops to find the best buy.
B2C web sites provide consumer services such as access to product reviews, chat rooms, and other product-related information.
B2C business target advertisements, determine needs and personalize offerings to a customer’s profile.
2. Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C)
Consists of individuals using the Internet to sell products and services directly to other individuals.
Online auction
the most popular vehicle for C2C e-commerce.
one consumer auctions goods to other consumers. If interested, you bid on an item. The highest bidder at the end of the bidding period purchases the item.
3. Business-to-Business (B2B)
Consists of the sale and exchange of products and service between businesses.
4 basic types of B2B
Vendor
Service
Broker
Infomediary
4 basic types of B2B
Vendor B2B site (e-procurement site)
Is a product supplier that allows purchasing agents to use a network to shop, submit request for quotes (RFQs), and purchase items.
Service B2B site
Uses a network to provide one or more services to business such as financing, warehousing, or shipping.
Brokering B2B site
Acts as a middleman by negotiating the contract of a purchase and a sale.
Info-mediary B2B site (short for information intermediary)
Provides specialized information about suppliers and other businesses.
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